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Conventional battery-management systems (BMS) estimate a battery’s condition primarily by tracking voltage, current, and temperature. Measuring these parameters and monitoring them over time remains essential. But this approach alone provides limited visibility into the electrochemical processes that ultimately govern performance and safety of the battery and its degradation over time.

This can be a drawback as lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries continue to spread out of electric vehicles (EVs) and into industrial equipment, construction machinery, data centers, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), and stationary battery energy storage systems (BESS). Across these applications, three objectives must be achieved at the same time: continuous operation, safety, and long service life. These goals all place increasingly demanding requirements on a commercial BMS.